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[摘要]原子理论是现代物理学的重大发现,我们朝思暮想试图去驾驭这种控制物质与能量的本领。基因理论则是现代生物学的重要基础,我们努力找寻这种主宰灵魂与肉体的方法。
本文摘自《见识丛书:基因传(悦享版)》,[美] 悉达多?穆克吉 著,马向涛 译,中信出版集团,2018年1月
“基因”既是遗传物质的基本单位,也是一切生物信息的基础。本书讲述了基因这个科学史上最具挑战与危险的概念的起源、发展与未来。我使用“危险”这个形容词来表述并非危言耸听。在整个20世纪中,“原子”“字节”以及“基因”这三项极具颠覆性的科学概念得到迅猛发展,并且成功引领人类社会进入到三个不同的历史阶段。尽管这些概念在19世纪时就为人们所预见,但是直到20世纪它们才发出耀眼的光芒。这些概念在问世之初只是为了解决某个具体问题,可是它们后来却渗透到生活的方方面面,最终对文化、社会、政治以及语言产生了巨大影响。截至目前,这三项概念在结构上竟有惊人的相似之处,其框架均由最基本的组织单元构成:例如原子是物质的最小单元,字节(或比特)是数字信息的最小单元,而基因则是遗传与生物信息的最小单元。
为什么这些最小可分单元聚沙成塔的属性充满了独特的魅力?其实答案非常简单—由于物质、信息与生物均具有固定的内在结构,因此只要理解最小单元组成就可以把握整体情况。诗人华莱士·史蒂文斯(Wallace Stevens)曾经写道:“化零为整,化整为零。”他指的是语言表达中的整体与局部的关系:尽管句子本身的含义要比每个单词更为丰富多彩,但是你只有在理解每个单词的基础上才能读懂整句话的意思。而基因作为遗传物质的基本单元也会遵循这个道理。任何一个有机体的结构都要比组成它的基因复杂,但是你只有先了解这些基因才能领悟其玄妙之处。19世纪90年代,当荷兰生物学家雨果·德·弗里斯(Hugo de Vries)偶然接触到基因概念时,他敏锐地意识到人们对于自然界的认知将发生翻天覆地的变化。“数量相对较少的某些因子经过不计其数的排列组合后形成了整个有机世界……就像研究物理与化学需要回归到分子与原子层面一样,我们需要通过生物科学手段来了解基因在大千世界中发挥的作用。”
原子、字节以及基因概念问世后,人们对于它们各自相关的领域从科学性与技术性上都有了新的认识。如果不从原子层面探寻物质的类型,那么人们将无从解释物质的这些现象。例如为什么金子会发光?为什么氢气遇到氧气会燃烧?如果不了解数字信息的组成结构,那么人们亦无法理解计算机运算的复杂性。例如算法的本质是什么?数据保存与破坏的机理是什么?某位19世纪的科学家曾经这样写道:“直到人们发现物质构成的基本元素后,炼金术才能被称为化学。”基于同样的原因,我在本书中的观点也非常明确,人们只有在充分理解基因概念的基础上,才可能领悟有机体与细胞的生物学特性或演化规律,并且对人类病理、行为、性格、疾病、种族、身份或者命运做出判别。
但是新概念的应用也会带来潜在的风险。例如掌握原子科学是控制核反应的先决条件(人类却通过操控核反应制造出了原子弹)。随着我们对基因概念的了解不断加深,人类在尝试操纵有机体的技术和能力方面都有了长足进展。我们发现遗传密码的本来面貌竟然如此简单:人类的遗传信息仅通过一种分子并按照单一编码规律即可世代相传。著名遗传学家托马斯·摩尔根(Thomas Morgan)曾经这样写道:“遗传学的基本原理是如此简明扼要,我们相信可以实现改变自然的梦想。而人们以往对于遗传规律的神秘感不过是一种错觉罢了。”
目前人们对于基因的理解已经日臻完善,并且由此摆脱了实验室阶段的束缚,我们开始有目的地在人类细胞中进行研究与干预工作。染色体是细胞中携带遗传物质的载体,其外形好似细长的纤维,上面携带有成千上万个以链状结构相连的基因。人类共有46条染色体,其中23条来自父亲,另外23条来自母亲。基因组指的是某个有机体携带的全套遗传信息(可以把基因组当作一部收录所有基因的百科全书,其中涵盖了注释、说明与参考文献)。人类基因组大约包括21000至23000个基因,它们在人体生长发育、细胞修复以及功能维持方面起着决定作用。鉴于基因技术在过去20年间得到迅猛发展,因而我们能够从时间与空间上破解部分基因发挥上述复杂功能的机制。
不仅如此,我们偶尔也会通过定向改造基因来影响它们的功能,最终使身体状态、生理机能甚至人类本身发生改变。这种从理论到实践的飞跃使遗传学在科学界中产生了巨大的反响。起初我们在研究基因时只是想了解它们在影响人类特征、性别或者性格时起到的作用。可是当我们开始设法通过改造基因来影响人类特征、性别或者行为的时候,其意义已经截然不同了。前者的意义可能只局限于心理学与神经学进展,而充满挑战与风险的后者才应该万众瞩目。
当我集中精力于本书创作时,人类正在学习如何改变有机体中由基因组决定的遗传特征。我想表达的意思是:仅仅在过去的4年间(2012—2016),我们已经发明出按照既定目标永久改变人类基因组的技术(尽管这些“基因工程”技术的安全性与可靠性还有待慎重评估)。
与此同时,通过分析个体基因组来预测人们未来命运的能力也得到大幅度提升(虽然通过这些技术预测出的结果的真实性尚需验证)。尽管人类已经“读取”了基因组的秘密,但是就在三四年前,我们还纠结于如何批量“复制”基因组的问题。
即便是平民百姓也能够意识到这种变革的力量,而我们正紧跟基因时代的脚步义无反顾地向前飞奔。一旦人类认识到个体基因组编码的命运本质(哪怕我们的预测水平还具有不确定性),并且掌握了定向改变这些可能的技术(哪怕这些技术还处在低效与烦琐阶段),那么我们的未来将发生天翻地覆的变化。英国著名小说家乔治·奥威尔(George Orwell)曾经写到,在评论家眼中,每个人都将显得一无是处。但愿现在的疑虑只是杞人忧天:当我们具备理解与操纵人类基因组的能力时,传统意义上的“人类”概念也许将发生改变。
原子理论是现代物理学的重大发现,我们朝思暮想试图去驾驭这种控制物质与能量的本领。基因理论则是现代生物学的重要基础,我们努力找寻这种主宰灵魂与肉体的方法。在基因理论形成的过程中,“充满了人们对于青春永恒的执着追求,其中也不乏命运多舛的梦想神话,同时还有创造完美人类的壮志豪情”。而这部作品主要记述了人们在基因发展史上攻坚克难的故事。
本书内容的编排按照时间顺序与故事情节展开,因此我们也可以把它当作一部反映基因发展史的传记。该故事起源于孟德尔(Mendel)种植豌豆的花园。1864年,他在摩拉维亚一座不起眼的修道院里发现了“遗传因子”,可惜这项具有划时代意义的成果旋即被人们遗忘(“基因”一词直到几十年后才问世)。孟德尔定律与达尔文进化论有部分内容不谋而合。基因概念的横空出世使得英美两国的改革派喜出望外,他们希望通过操纵遗传规律来加速人类进化与解放。20世纪40年代,纳粹德国为了实现上述目标已经达到疯狂的极限,他们利用某些残忍的人体实验来验证优生学理论,其中包括监禁、绝育、安乐死以及灭绝人性的屠杀。
第二次世界大战(以下简称“二战”)结束后科学技术的迅猛发展促成了生物学领域的革命。研究证实DNA(脱氧核糖核酸)就是遗传信息的载体。如果我们使用专业术语来表述基因的“作用”,那么基因就是通过编码化学信息来合成蛋白质,从而控制生物的性状并且行使生物学功能。詹姆斯?沃森(James Watson)、弗朗西斯?克里克(Francis Crick)、莫里斯?威尔金斯(Maurice Wilkins)与罗莎琳德?富兰克林(Rosalind Franklin)都是杰出的科学家,他们共同努力的结果揭示了DNA三维结构的奥秘,并且提出了具有标志性意义的“DNA双螺旋结构”学说。随后科学家们乘胜追击,迅速破解了遗传密码的规律。
20世纪70年代,有两项对遗传学起到重要影响的技术问世,这就是我们耳熟能详的基因测序与基因克隆,它们分别代表着基因的“读取”与“复制”(“基因克隆”包括所有用于从生物体中提取基因,然后经过一系列体外操作后获得杂交基因,并且这些杂交基因可以在活细胞内大量复制的技术)。20世纪80年代,人类遗传学家开始使用这些技术比对并鉴别疾病相关基因,例如亨廷顿病与囊性纤维化。开展此类基因鉴定工作意味着遗传病管理进入了新纪元,而这些技术能够让父母对胎儿进行筛查,如果胎儿携带危害健康的突变基因,那么父母可以选择终止妊娠(对于许多为胎儿检测唐氏综合征、囊性纤维化或者泰伊—萨克斯二氏病基因的父母,以及那些接受BRCA1或BRCA2基因检测的女性而言,他们实际上已经成为基因诊断、管理与优化领域的受益者)。本书讲述的故事并非遥远的梦想,人类征服基因的时代已经到来。
我们在许多人类肿瘤中发现了多种类型的基因突变,这也为深入了解此类疾病的遗传学改变奠定了基础。同时人类基因组计划的实施则将该领域推至自然科学的巅峰,并且在堪称典范的国际合作中顺利完成了全部人类基因的比对与测序工作。2001年,人类基因组草图正式公布。根据基因组计划的发展方向,我们将从基因层面来理解人类遗传过程中变异与“正常”的行为。
与此同时,基因还涉及某些敏感内容,例如民族关系、种族歧视以及智力差异,当然这也可能成为政治与文化领域中引起广泛争议的焦点话题。除此之外,基因也颠覆了我们对于性别、身份以及选择的理解,从而直接影响到每个人的切身利益。
本书用叙事的手法讲述了基因概念的历史演绎,而我也借此来追忆家族变迁的世事沧桑。
《见识丛书:基因传(悦享版)》,[美] 悉达多?穆克吉 著,马向涛 译,中信出版集团,2018年1月
在整个20世纪,有三项颠覆性的科学概念和技术应用把人类社会引领到新的历史阶段:“原子”的发现带来物理学的革命,“字节”的发现带来互联网的革命,“基因”的发现带来生物学的革命。
基因既是遗传物质的基本单位,也是一切生物信息的基础,破解了基因的运行机制,也就破解了生命的奥秘,人类的病理、行为、性格、疾病、种族、身份、命运也就有了更新的答案。如今,基因测序、基因克隆等基因技术迅速发展,人类基因组计划也完成了全部人类基因的比对与测序工作,人类征服基因的时代已经到来。
《基因传》罕见地完整讲述了基因理论的起源、发展和未来,按照时间顺序和故事情节展开,是一部反映基因发展史的传记。
《基因传》也是一部科学家们在探究基因奥秘的过程中攻坚克难的故事,像侦探小说一样,以科学家们不断遇到的新问题为线索步步深入,既深入浅出地梳理了基因理论的脉络,又真实记录了科学家们的合作与斗争、成功与失败。《基因传》也讲述了基因理论被政治歪曲利用导致的历史灾难和教训,以及基因技术与制度、文化、伦理、道德的冲撞和博弈。有精彩故事,有人性纠葛,有历史进退,《基因传》是一部有温度的、叙事高超的科普通识读物。
人类从来没有像今天这样无限接近生命的真相,当我们能够掌控和改造人类基因时,“人类”的概念也许将从根本上发生改变,后人类时代正在来临。《基因传》所讲的故事,与每个人都息息相关。
《基因传》出版后,迅速高居亚马逊榜单,成为《纽约时报》畅销书,《华盛顿邮报》《西雅图时报》年度好书。
(本文为腾讯文化签约的合作方内容,转载请注明出处。)